Sanctions have long been a tool for countries, particularly those with significant economic and political influence, to exert pressure on other nations, entities, or individuals to change their behaviour or policies. These measures can range from comprehensive economic and trade sanctions to more targeted measures such as arms embargoes, asset freezes, and travel bans. Sanctions can be imposed for various reasons, including human rights abuses, terrorism, narcotics trafficking, and threats to international peace and security. And the history of sanctions, especially regarding global trade, is complex and has evolved significantly over time.
The concept of trade sanctions can be traced back to ancient times. Although not as formally structured or globally enforced as they are today, they played significant roles in diplomacy, warfare, and economic strategies among states and civilisations.
One of the earliest recorded examples of trade sanctions is the Athenian embargo against Megara in 432 BC, known as the Megarian Decree. Imposed shortly before the Peloponnesian War, this embargo forbade Megarian merchants from accessing markets and ports within the Athenian Empire. And then in the 3rd to 2nd century BC, Rome imposed various economic sanctions on Carthage, including restrictions on trade, limitations on naval capabilities, and demands for war reparations. These sanctions were part of Rome's broader strategy to weaken Carthage economically and militarily. The imposition of harsh terms following the Second Punic War, including significant territorial losses and heavy financial reparations, contributed to the decline of Carthage and its eventual destruction after the Third Punic War.
And, even back then, we could look outside Europe. In the 2nd century BC, the Han Dynasty of China implemented economic strategies against the Xiongnu, a nomadic confederation considered a significant threat to Chinese borders. By establishing fortified outposts and blockades, the Han Dynasty aimed to restrict the access to vital trade routes and resources, particularly along the Silk Road. This strategy was part of a broader military and diplomatic effort to protect the empire's frontiers and stabilise the region.
These examples demonstrate that trade sanctions and economic coercion have long been used as tools of statecraft. Ancient leaders recognised the power of economic measures to influence the behaviour of adversaries, complementing military campaigns and diplomatic negotiations. While the mechanisms and global context have evolved, the fundamental principles guiding the use of sanctions have historical roots stretching back millennia.
Jumping forward to the period just after World War II, the United Nations was established, and the concept of international sanctions was embodied in its charter. The UN Security Council was given the power to impose sanctions on member states that threatened world peace. Probably one of the most well-known sanctions in history is the United States' trade embargo against Cuba, initiated in 1960 in response to nationalisations of U.S.-owned Cuban businesses without compensation. This embargo, which has been tightened and partially eased over the years, remains one of the longest-standing examples of trade sanctions.
Moving forward again, in the 1980s, many countries and international bodies, including the United Nations, imposed sanctions against South Africa in opposition to its apartheid regime. These sanctions were crucial in pressuring the South African government to dismantle apartheid. And then, in the 1990's, after Iraq invaded Kuwait, the UN imposed comprehensive sanctions, including a trade embargo. Of course, these sanctions had significant humanitarian impacts, leading to debates about the ethics and effectiveness of broad economic sanctions.
So that brings us to the 21st century, in what could be termed the era of ‘smart sanctions.' In response to criticisms of comprehensive sanctions, the concept of "smart" or targeted sanctions emerged. These are designed to minimise suffering among the general population by specifically targeting the political and military elites of a country, their sources of revenue, and prohibited goods (such as arms). Examples include sanctions against the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and North Korea.
Also, over concerns about Iran's nuclear program, a series of international sanctions were imposed by the UN, the EU, and the United States. The 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action led to the lifting of some sanctions in exchange for Iran curbing its nuclear program.
More recently, following Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014, the US, EU, and other country-imposed sanctions against Russian individuals, companies, and sectors of the economy. These sanctions have been expanded in response to further developments, including the conflict in eastern Ukraine and apparent interference in foreign elections.
So, summarising, there are three strands to applying sanctions:
Sanctions' effectiveness and ethical implications are subjects of ongoing debate. Critics argue that sanctions can lead to severe humanitarian crises and often harm the general population more than the targeted elites. Proponents view them as necessary tools for enforcing international norms without resorting to military intervention.
This brief history of sanctions reveals their complexity and the challenges in achieving intended political and economic outcomes. As global trade and financial systems become increasingly interconnected, the impact and implementation of sanctions will continue to evolve.